1. Describe the use of census statistics in explaining changes to the population of different religions in Australia between 1945 & the present day.
Census statistics have been used to account for changes to the population of different religions in Australia between 1945 and the present day. These statistics demonstrate a shift from a ‘monocultural, monoreligious & monoethnic’ state during the latter half of the 1940s, to a multicultural and all-inclusive society by the turn of the century.
The statistics reveal that the percentage of those who identified themselves as Christians dropped from 88% of the total population in 1945 to 68% in 2001. Whilst the percentages of people within some Christian denominations have risen , others have emerged , remained stable or dropped dramatically.
The statistics also show that the percentage of those claiming affiliation with other religions, or no religion at all, have risen over the past sixty years. Here, dramatic changes, particularly in the proportion of people claiming adherence to the world’s other major religions are evident. Whilst the Jewish population remained relatively stable, Hinduism experienced a slight increase, and Buddhism and Islam populations escalated dramatically.
The statistics have evidently been used to illustrate changes to the population of the five major religions as well as the emergence of other faiths including New Ageism, as proportions of the total population within Australia from 1945 to the present day by providing insight to the nature and magnitude of such changes.
2.Describe the religious landscape and its changes since 1945.
Since 1945 profound changes have been made to the religious landscape of Australian society. Immediately following the Second World War, the Christian tradition played a major role in the molding of political and social mores as well as the provision of health, welfare and eduction services to the Australian public. With 88 per cent of the population being Christian, there was an expectation that people would attend church where they would be ministered to by a male celebrant. People were prevented from participating in recreational and work related activities on Sundays as part of social restrictions enforced by the Church who also outlined the concept of a ‘normal family’ to include a mother, father and three to four children. Divorce and domestic abuse were unheard as was premarital sex. An unmarried woman who fell pregnant would either be compelled to give her child up for adoption or seek out a doctor willing to perform an illegal abortion. Having said this, contraception was neither prevalent nor encouraged and sex education limited and superficial. People who were considered ‘different’ because of their skin colour, cultural heritage or differed sexuality were subject to institutionalised prejudice. Each of these values were considered as social norms and upheld as such.
Over the past sixty years however, people and communities alike have challenged these long-established mores and thus shaped the religious landscape of today’s day and age. Whilst Christianity continues its provision of education, welfare and health services, its influence over the social and political realms continues to lessen. Today no such expectation on the attendance of mass exists, whilst female and even gay ministers have been embraced by some Christian denominations, namely the Protestant Church. People are no longer prohibited from shopping, playing sports or even working on Sundays. In addition, divorce, contraception, abortion and homosexuality are no longer associated with the social stigma of the past. Notions of the nuclear family have also shifted whilst domestic and sexual abuse is no longer disguised but frowned upon and forbidden. Although prejudice continues, it is neither encouraged nor permitted.
It can therefore be seen that the Australian religious landscape has experienced acute changes and developments over the past sixty years.
3.Explain the changing patterns of religious adherence in Australia since 1945.
Distinct changing patters of religious adherence in Australia are evident from 1945. In the past, religious adherence and participation in church life was a social expectation that all were compelled to observe. Christian adherents were expected to attend mass every Sunday and obligatory feast day. In addition it was expected that everyone, not only Christians, were to observe Sunday as the holy day of obligation. Here sports, work, entertainment and shopping were prohibited. Religious adherence influenced every aspect of per diem life. Today, adherents are free to do as they please on Sundays, and whilst the expectation of attending mass continues to exist, it is minor. The reason for this change was primarily the migratory influx following the Second World War.
4.Evaluate the importance of Christianity, the major religious tradition, in the history of Australia.
An in-depth studying of Christianity in the context of Australian history will show that this major religious tradition was of great significance in the country’s history. From the time of British colonization in 1788, Christianity has played a major role in the establishment and development of Australian social, political and cultural mores, some of which are evident today. The Christian tradition was supported and encouraged by ‘official and unofficial government policy and social norms’, which in turn empowered the church and its adherents. Christianity thus influenced such things as marriage and family life, worship, sex education, institutionalized prejudice and legislation regarding business operations, the role of women in the home and in the workplace. The church also supplied the provision of health, education and welfare benefits to members of the public, a service that continues today. Christianity, as the major religious tradition in Australia, is therefore of major importance when considered in terms the history of Australia.
5.List some social & cultural differences between 1945 & Australia today.
Some social and cultural differences in Australia between 1945 and the present day include:
Perception of Aboriginal Dreaming as a valid and worthwhile faith system;
Lessened influence of Christianity on political proceedings;
Secular as opposed to Christian approach to the development and policing of laws and legislation;
Perceptions of the normal, or nuclear family;
Restrictions regarding recreational and work related activities on Sundays;
Social acceptability and encouragement of contraception;
Legalisation and acceptance of homosexuality;
Social acceptability of premarital sex and child rearing outside of wedlock;
Opportunities for women in the church; ministers etc.
Acknowledgement and condemnation of domestic and sexual abuse, provision of support services for victims;
Legalisation of abortion;
Divorce now commonplace, lacking social stigma of the past.
6.Recount some changes that migration caused in the religious life of Australia.
Migration post WWII caused some changes in the religious life of Australia. With formal and informal agreements being made between governments and interest groups, migrants and refugees made their way to Australia in the hope for a better life, bringing with them their own beliefs and customs. The influx of Afghan and Iraqi refugees, for example, brought about higher populations of Islam, whilst asylum seekers from South-East Asia caused an increase of Buddhist populations.
7. Describe & analyse the concept of denominational switching.
Denominational switching is a process whereby the adherents from one denomination within a religious tradition change, or ‘switch’, to another. These changes have been widely attributed to social mobility; as peoples’ lives change, so do their religious beliefs and practices. Different experiences challenge different people to extend themselves beyond their ‘religious comfort zone’. Others factors influencing denominational switching include:
- monetary wealth/economic polarization between rich & poor as well as the prevailing association between conservative religion & increased economic mobility
- social influence, namely the fear of terrorism & its link to extreme religious expression ‡ move to conservative switching
- Cyclical trends of liberalism and conservatism which have in turn seen a social trend away from ‘self-analysis & religious spiritualism to a religion based on a strong theocratic world view’
A trend toward increased denominational switching is evident in Australian society, with people adopting an attitude of increased cultural individualism (‘I don’t want to, therefore I don’t have to’).
8. Explain how denominational switching has affected Christianity overall & some individual denominations.
Denominational switching, particularly within the past sixty years has had a major impact on individual denominations and Christianity as a whole. Denominational switching resultant from a prevailing attitude of cultural individualism among adherents has seen a more casual observation and practice of the Protestant, Catholic and Orthodox denominations. In addition, movement from mainline Protestant denominations and switching to more evangelical and conservative churches is becoming increasingly evident.
9. Describe the rise of New Age religions & extrapolate recent trends to predict changes in the next five years.
New Age religions have been on the rise in Australia since the beginning of the 1970s following their introduction in the US. Developed in response to mainstream religions, namely Christianity, and their ‘failure to satisfactorily respond to the needs of people today’ (p.30), the New Age Movement has no official structure or holy text, rather centres on a variety of similar beliefs and is founded on spiritualist ideals.
From 1996 to 2001, the proportion of individuals who claimed adherence to New Ageism doubled from 30 500 to 45 800 (p29). The most significant increases were seen in Paganism, which saw an increase of 144 per cent, and Wiccan/Witchcraft, which rose by 373 per cent. Whilst Spiritualist increased by 14 per cent during this five-year period, the sect nonetheless accounts for the greatest number of adherents, beside Paganism, in the New Age Movement. The 2006 census saw a further escalation in the number of people claiming adherence to Paganism, with a 45.93 per cent increase. Spiritualist and Wiccan/Witchcraft however, remained constant, with the former increasing by 0.06 per cent and the latter declining by 0.06 per cent. It is therefore evident that New Ageism has, and continues to be of significance within Australian society. If current trends continue alongside the support of mass media, New Ageism namely Paganism, will continue to escalate incredibly.
10. Describe the concept of secularism & explain how it affects the expression of religion in Australia.
The concept of secularism is basically any movement or ideal that that rejects religion, or more specifically, denies religious belief and adherence. It involves an individual decision not to belong or be engaged in the faith and/or spiritual experience that religion offers. Agnosticism, atheism, humanism and rationalism are all secular views.
In Australia, increasing secularism has seen a drop in total religious adherence, both formal and informal. Commonly attributed to an increased acceptance of secularism in Australian society, this movement has affected a more relaxed, more casual expression of religion within the past few years. Church processes, one’s beliefs, alternatives, personal attitudes and technical influences are all factors that have, and continue to result in the rise of secularism as well as declining church attendance. Each of these factors also support the prevailing perception of individual wants, needs and ideals as opposed to those of the community. The perception of individual importance and value is thus heightened, whilst that of the community is relegated. When applied to Christianity, secularism is causing the downfall of some denominations and the success of others in terms of religious adherence, church attendance, and even denominational switching or the disavowal of religion altogether.
11.Define the following: a. Ecumenism:
Dialogue between difference (Christian) faiths on an organisational level to discuss similarities and differences of organization and belief. Also refers to Ecumenical Movement which is one that aims to unite the all denominations of Christianity into one single church – the Christian church. b.Interfaith dialogue:
‘Cooperative and positive interaction between people of different religious traditions.’ (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interfaith_dialogue)
c.Reconciliation:
A process by which conflict is ended or friendly relationships renewed between disputing groups or people; making two apparently conflicting things consistent or compatible.
12. List & describe the history & activities of some ecumenical movements within Christianity.
a. World Student Christian Federation (WSCF):
Founded in Sweden during 1895, The World Student Christian Foundation is an international student organization. The WSCF centres on the concept of ecumenism and consists of individual national Student Christian movements of Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant denominations. The movement aims to evangelise the Christian message. Taken from the Gospel according to John, the motto of the WSCF reads ‘That they may all be one’ (Jn 17:21).Active in universities across the country, the Australian Student Christian Movement (ASCM) constitutes Australia’s involvement within the WSCF.
The Federation engages in the social aspects of Christianity, namely environmental and social justice issues. The ASCM actively work towards supporting and liberating marginalised social and cultural groups, including women, homosexuals and Aboriginal and Torres Strait islander people. Together these groups strive against ‘racism and the exploitation of disposed people within the Asia-Pacific region.
b. National Council of Churches
The National Council of Churches (NCC) is an ecumenical organization that effectively unites Australian Christian churches in practical and organisational cooperation to discuss faith-based issues. It works in cooperation with the World Council of Churches as well as state governments in order to achieve its objectives of positive inter-faith dialogue and the development of progressive and encouraging relations between Christian denominations concerned with the organization.
c. NSW Ecumenical Council
The NSW Ecumenical Council consists of 16 churches from both NSW and the ACT. These churches share a common perception that ecumenism is a positive step in the journey to unity within the Christian church. Akin to the student associations, the Ecumenical Council unites its member churches in practical and organisational cooperation to discuss and express concerns and attitudes regarding faith-based issues as well as work collaboratively for the advantage of both individual churches and the wider community. In this way the Council encourages and supports interfaith dialogue between local churches of differing denominations.
13. Evaluate the importance of interfaith dialogue to Australia.
Interfaith dialogue is paramount to Australia, especially given the nation’s multicultural nature. Interfaith dialogue, that is the active communication and listening between members of different faith traditions, allows those involved to develop an informed understanding of the different religions, perspectives, attitudes, ideas and concerns held by others with whom they may not otherwise have the opportunity to relate. Carried out in the context of a safe, supportive and tolerant environment, where members feel appreciated, respected and valued, this approach is then encouraged and extended to include members of the wider community, both religious and secular. Interfaith dialogue is essential in allowing the different religious traditions to have their voice heard and in turn hear those of their fellow Australians in addressing and managing issues and concerns that affect each and every Australian citizen, either directly or indirectly, thus promoting the development of a tolerant and egalitarian multicultural society.
14. Explain how Reconciliation affects all Australians.
The concept of reconciliation, or the betterment of relationships between disputing people or groups, is one that affects all Australians. Reconciliation, when applied to the Australian context, refers to the relationships between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people and non-indigenous Australians and the improving of these bonds. Australians for Native Title and Reconciliations (ANTaR), a national network of individuals and organizations independent of all government and political groups, since is establishment in 1997, has brought to the fore the way in which Reconciliation affects all Australians. By ‘bringing together Aboriginies and non-Aboriginies [we, the Australian people can find] better ways of tackling problems and of connecting with one another.’
In order to bring about justice, recognition and healing of past wrongs, Reconciliation must take place. The first step in achieving Reconciliation was taken in March of 2008, when Labour Prime Minister Kevin Rudd delivered a national apology on behalf of the Australian Government and it’s people to the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, namely the Stolen Generations who were forcibly removed from their cultural links and kinship ties from the 1930s thorough to the 1970s. Not only do Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders contribute significantly to the social and cultural fabric of today’s day and age, but to the sacred, historical fabric of the past. Having said this, it can be seen that Reconciliation affects all Australians and out ability to forge a national identity as a multicultural society appreciative of the past and present contributions of our indigenous population. Furthermore, Reconciliation is essential in bridging the social and cultural inequities that have and continue to exist between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal Australians.
Reference:Spotlight: Studies of Religion HSC Science Press pp.20
Subject specific terminology: Questions
Assess the implications of Scientific Humanism on the development of the scientific method.
Examine (inquire into) the origins of Animism.
Describe the characteristics and features of Agnosticism.
Humanism, Atheism, Agnosticism...
Humanism
The video, ‘What is Humanism?’ assists people in finding meaning through non-religious practices by lending the viewer an explanation of the fundamental philosophy upon which humanism is based. Humanism, namely scientific humanism, is basically a philosophy that humankind can be perfected and knowledge attained through rational thought and experimentation. The philosophy repudiates anything that cannot be verified or dealt with using the scientific method, and therefore centers on ‘living life with a reason and trying to answer questions in a rational manner’. This reason, as described by the individuals within the clip, is ‘understanding human nature’ and ‘living life as well as one can…for the betterment of humanity’.
The humanistic approach of celebrating, respecting and valuing all living creatures, humankind in particular, is attributed to the inherent disposition of the human person. A practicing humanist commented that she was attracted to the philosophy because ‘it already fit [her] direction, because it comes from within’. In concentrating one’s efforts towards improving his or her relationships with those around them as well as their surrounding environment, the humanist finds an encouraging and profound support system as well as a strong sense of belonging and consequent identity. In this way the humanist is enabled to develop the values and principles, promoted by the humanistic approach as being human-based.
In coupling compassion with scientific methods, the humanist is enabled to make sense of their world, to understand ‘our context within nature’ and therefore find direction and meaning by nonreligious means.
This video is basically an individual's perspective on and experience of atheism. She claims that atheism allows a sense of freedom and individual fulfillment. She describes her world-view as being 'complete'. The subject details that she has no need to look outside of this life for value and meaning, that value and meaning should not, or rather do not depend on an outside force, or God, in stead should depend on one's own experiences. According to the subject, atheism is 'deep, solid and based on fact'. The meaning and value with which she regards people and things in life, as well as life itself, stems from her day to day experiences, her connectedness with others and her surrounding environment. She comments that there is no need for 'exterior validation', rather an individual certainty of the here and now, a common theme observed amongst and agnostics alike.
Krimmel, M. (2008) Atheism is not sad [Online] Accessed: 07/12/08 http://au.youtube.com/watch?v=tXMbiHhxwoE&feature=related
Agnosticism This clip defines an Agnostic as 'a person who holds the view that any ultimate reality (as God) is unknown and probably unknowable and is therefore not committed to believing in either the existence or nonexistence of God or a god.' It too provides a definition of the term 'God' and how the philosophy of agnosticism applies to religious tradition. The subject details that science, logic and mathematics are all 'valid' in the material or physical realm, a realm in which ghosts, gods and and other spiritual beings are 'invalid' or unable to be dealt with using the former three methods. He argues that because God, or rather the existence of deities, do not affect change on the physical realm, have mass or energy they do not exist or cannot be detected, which for him is the equivalent to nonexistence. By relating the belief in a deity to that of a belief in fantasy, the composer suggests that God, or spiritual beings, if they exist, may be found within 'another' universe, a universe unlike our own, a universe in which their existence will never be known. Any statement pertaining to the 'truth' is thought to be equivocal to error and is thus thought to be irrational, Agnostics therefore reserve judgement about the existence of gods and supernatural beings. Having said this, it can be seen that Agnostics such judgments are reserved in respect of possibility, the possibility in a world where very little, they believe, is certain - a 'doorway' as opposed to a 'closed door'. (Spare yourself, don't watch the video.)
- According to the Jewish Sacred texts the actions of the adherent reflect their r/ship with God, this relationship stipulates that life has intrinsic value and must therefore be preserved at all cost.
Paul
Subject Specific Terms
Epistles – from the Greek word meaning ‘letters’; style in which Paul wrote when addressing the Christian communities he had established. E.g. Corinth.
Hellenise – to make something Greek; used to describe Paul’s action of ‘Hellenising’ Christianity in order to make it more accessible to those of his time.
Christos – from the Greek word meaning ‘anointed one’ in reference to Jesus. Sect – a subgroup of a religious tradition, typically emphasising a particular aspect that makes it different to other groups of the same tradition. Used here to refer to Christianity as a sect of Judaism, prior to it becoming a fully-fledged religion in its own right
Evangelical– ‘from the gospels’; typically refers to a Protestant movement that believes one’s soul can be saved only by having faith in the atoning death of Jesus. Used to describe the ‘evangelical’ movement of Christianity of which Paul was a prominent figurehead
Pauling Christianity – ‘Pauline’ term used critically to suggest that Paul and his followers unduly corrupted the message of Jesus. Used to describe Christianity that has ‘shaken off’ many of its Jewish practices
Persecutor– someone who oppresses/punishes others for following a particular faith. Used to describe Paul, or rather Saul, prior to his conversion.
Missionary – a person who works to convert others to their religious faith, often in a place where the religion is not widely practiced; which is what Paul did in spreading the Good News of Jesus ‘to the ends of the earth’
Martyr – to put someone to death who will not give up their religion or views or beliefs. Christian tradition maintains that Paul was martyred during Nero’s persecution of the Christians during the latter half of the first century
Wednesday's Lesson
During today’s lesson you are to:
1. Prepare a draft plan for your Assessment Task focussing on Paul’s contribution to the development and expression of Christianity.
2. Suggested Reading p 47-48 of Meeting St Paul. The references here will allow you to explore Paul’s contribution Christianity.
3. Download the powerpoints from the class Wiki to assist with essay plan.
4. It would be helpful to answer the Key Text and Questions on page 53 of Meeting St Paul Today.
5. Place your draft ideas and essay plan on your Wiki page.
End of the Lesson:
1. Ensure you have saved your plan to your wikispaces.com
2. Check the learning preparation due for Friday.
Describe Christian ethical teachings on bioethics
Ethical teachings can be defined as ‘a system of moral principles by which human actions may be judged to be right or wrong’. Christian bioethics therefore, is an application of our moral and ethical principles to human life issues such as abortion, euthanasia, and stem cell research, as well as our responses to these. In Christianity such responses are fundamentally informed by Biblical teaching, that is to say, all variants of Christianity formulate their bioethics on the basis of the Old and New Testaments. When examining Christian bioethics, the role of conscience, Eternal Law, Natural Law, Revealed Law and Church Law, must also be considered.
The Decalogue, particularly the sixth commandment - ‘Thou shall not kill’ – as an example of revealed and natural law reinforces the sanctity of human life established in Genesis - ‘in his image and likeness he created them’ – that undergirds Christian bioethics. Akin to Jesus’ Golden Rule and the Beatitudes, related in Matthew’s gospel, these too inform the Christian understanding that the human person is intrinsically holy because God is holy – ‘You are holy because I am holy’. Therefore, if we are holy, just as God is holy, we must act in a manner befitting the dignity of the human person as well as our relationship with God.
In John’s gospel (13:14-15) Jesus states ‘You are to do as I have done for you’. In this way Jesus offers Christians the example of his life, death and resurrection as a way in which adherents are to live in accordance with the moral and ethical principles demanded by their beliefs. Furthermore, in his summary of the Decalogue, Jesus states that we must ‘love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your mind and with all your strength, and love your neighbour as you love yourself’. When determining an ethical response therefore, Christians will ideally ask ‘what would Jesus do?’ and ‘does this decision reflect the law of love’. If the answer to these is ‘yes’, then the decision and consequent action are considered both moral and ethical. Ideally, such conclusions would also be drawn through human reasoning.
Despite this common thread, variations in ethics can be seen throughout Christianity as variants place different emphasis on different sources of guidance. For example, Catholics emphasise the role of authoritative bodies such as the Vatican, whilst Protestants discredit such roles with a total focus on biblical teaching. Such variations will often manifest themselves in the different responses adherents develop to such issues as contraception and abortion.
Islamic bioethics
Haven't yet read through this thoroughly, but the following link provides excerpts from the Qur'an to formulate and justify the Islamic understanding that bioethics must be considered in the light of the dignity of the human person, scripture and the prophetic tradition. http://www.iaari.hbi.ir/journal/archive/articles/v6s5ara.pdf
Four (4) quotes from the Qur’an to support bioethical teachings:
“We have honored the sons of Adam; provided them with transport on land and sea; given them for sustenance things, good and pure; and conferred on them special favours, above a great part of Our creation” (17:70).
“And when I have fashioned it, and breathed into it of my spirit, then fall ye down before it adoring.” (15:30)
“O ye who believe! obey God, and obey the Apostle and those in authority amongst you; and if ye quarrel about anything, refer to God and the Apostle, if ye believe in God and the last day; that is better and fairer as a settlement.” (4:60)
“But he who is driven by necessity, neither craving nor transgressing, it is no sin for him. Lo! Allah is Forgiving, Merciful.” (2:173)
Subject Specific Terminology
Qur'an:
- 'the recitation'; Islamic holy book (610-632): the sacred text of Islam, believed by Muslims to record the revelations of God to Muhammad.
- part of Islamic law; one of the basic sources of Islamic law based on Muhammad’s words and deeds as recorded in the Hadith.
The Sunna complements and often explains the Koran. (Encarta)
- the way of life prescribed as normative for Muslims on the basis of the teachings and practices of Muhammad and interpretations of the Koran. [[wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn]]
- Collection of Islamic traditions: the collected traditions, teachings, and stories of the prophet Muhammad, accepted as a source of Islamic doctrine and law second only to the Koran (Encarta)
Ijima:
-consensus of opinion
Fiqh:
- Islamic jurisprudence; Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the Quran and Sunnah—that complements Shariah with evolving rulings/interpretations of Islamic jurists.
Fiqh deals with the observance of rituals, morals and social legislation. There are four prominent Sunni schools of fiqh (Madh'hab) and two schools for the Shi'a. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiqh
-Islamic law as developed by Muslim jurists. The term is often used synonymously with Shari'ah; the main difference being that Shari'ah bears a closer link with divine revelation, whereas fiqh mainly consists of the works of religious scholars and jurists.http://www.geocities.com/mutmainaa/law/law_glossary.html
Fatwa:
- a response by a scholar of Islamic law to a question related to Islamic law
- a religious edict
Shari'a:
-Islamic law as contained in the divine guidance of the Qur'an and Sunnah. 'Islamic law' is the nearest English translation of Shari'ah, yet the latter is not confined specifically to legal subject matter and extends to the much wider areas of moral and religious guidance http://www.geocities.com/mutmainaa/law/law_glossary.html
Halal:
- permissible under Islamic law
Haram:
- not permissible under Islamic law
Prophet:
- somebody who interprets divine will: somebody who interprets or passes on the will of a deity (Encarta)
Muhammad:
-UHAMMAD: Muhammad (sometimes Mohammed, Mahomet) (570? - 632 CE), the founder of Islam, is regarded as the "seal of the prophets", meaning the last of the line of prophets that begins with Adam and runs through the prophets of the Old and New Testaments, including Abraham, John the Baptist, and Jesus. At about age forty, Muhammad was visited by the angel Gabriel, through whom he received and recited the Qur'an.http://www.zoofence.com/define05.html
Sunni:
- "a follower of Sunnah"; a follower of mainstream Islam; Sunni or a Sunnite; an orthodox Muslim who recognizes the first four Caliphs as the rightful successors. http://www.geocities.com/mihraab786/Termi.html
Shiite:
- member of one of the two great sects of Muslims: Shiites consider Ali, Mohammed’s son-in-law and the fourth of the caliphs, as the first Imam and the rightful successor of Mohammed, and do not accept the Sunna as authoritative.http://www.worldpress.org/mideast/1897.cfm
Hajj:
- 'an imperative duty of all able Muslims'
- pilgrimage to Mecca
- the seal of consummation, the completion of surrender, and the perfection of religion'
Five Pillars:
five fundamental statements of belief that govern the everyday life of Muslim adherents. They are:
Hajj, as a the Fifth and final Pillar of Islam is most significant to the Muslim religion. In completing the pilgrimage to various sacred sites in Mecca, one being Ka'ba, all Muslim adherents - including the Shii'te and Sunnah' variants - fulfill their obligatory duty to Allah, to submit to his will and do what it is right. The Hajj consists of numerous rites, each of which express the fundamental principles upon which Islam has developed. In respect to the individual and the community, or Umah, Hajj represents an opportunity for all adherents, irrespective of race or variant, to gather as the one people of God. The simple white attire of the pilgrim is symbolic of this. Furthermore, prayer, charity, the declaration of faith and abstinence/fasting (each of wich are Pillars in themselves), are observed in the spirit of moral and spiritual disciple, within the context of the faith community, to 'perfect the religion' and bring each adherent that much closer to Allah. For these reasons, Hajj is of upmost significance for both the individual and community as an expression of faith.
Chap. #2 – Religious expression
1. Describe the use of census statistics in explaining changes to the population of different religions in Australia between 1945 & the present day.Census statistics have been used to account for changes to the population of different religions in Australia between 1945 and the present day. These statistics demonstrate a shift from a ‘monocultural, monoreligious & monoethnic’ state during the latter half of the 1940s, to a multicultural and all-inclusive society by the turn of the century.
The statistics reveal that the percentage of those who identified themselves as Christians dropped from 88% of the total population in 1945 to 68% in 2001. Whilst the percentages of people within some Christian denominations have risen , others have emerged , remained stable or dropped dramatically.
The statistics also show that the percentage of those claiming affiliation with other religions, or no religion at all, have risen over the past sixty years. Here, dramatic changes, particularly in the proportion of people claiming adherence to the world’s other major religions are evident. Whilst the Jewish population remained relatively stable, Hinduism experienced a slight increase, and Buddhism and Islam populations escalated dramatically.
The statistics have evidently been used to illustrate changes to the population of the five major religions as well as the emergence of other faiths including New Ageism, as proportions of the total population within Australia from 1945 to the present day by providing insight to the nature and magnitude of such changes.
2. Describe the religious landscape and its changes since 1945.
Since 1945 profound changes have been made to the religious landscape of Australian society. Immediately following the Second World War, the Christian tradition played a major role in the molding of political and social mores as well as the provision of health, welfare and eduction services to the Australian public. With 88 per cent of the population being Christian, there was an expectation that people would attend church where they would be ministered to by a male celebrant. People were prevented from participating in recreational and work related activities on Sundays as part of social restrictions enforced by the Church who also outlined the concept of a ‘normal family’ to include a mother, father and three to four children. Divorce and domestic abuse were unheard as was premarital sex. An unmarried woman who fell pregnant would either be compelled to give her child up for adoption or seek out a doctor willing to perform an illegal abortion. Having said this, contraception was neither prevalent nor encouraged and sex education limited and superficial. People who were considered ‘different’ because of their skin colour, cultural heritage or differed sexuality were subject to institutionalised prejudice. Each of these values were considered as social norms and upheld as such.
Over the past sixty years however, people and communities alike have challenged these long-established mores and thus shaped the religious landscape of today’s day and age. Whilst Christianity continues its provision of education, welfare and health services, its influence over the social and political realms continues to lessen. Today no such expectation on the attendance of mass exists, whilst female and even gay ministers have been embraced by some Christian denominations, namely the Protestant Church. People are no longer prohibited from shopping, playing sports or even working on Sundays. In addition, divorce, contraception, abortion and homosexuality are no longer associated with the social stigma of the past. Notions of the nuclear family have also shifted whilst domestic and sexual abuse is no longer disguised but frowned upon and forbidden. Although prejudice continues, it is neither encouraged nor permitted.
It can therefore be seen that the Australian religious landscape has experienced acute changes and developments over the past sixty years.
3. Explain the changing patterns of religious adherence in Australia since 1945.
Distinct changing patters of religious adherence in Australia are evident from 1945. In the past, religious adherence and participation in church life was a social expectation that all were compelled to observe. Christian adherents were expected to attend mass every Sunday and obligatory feast day. In addition it was expected that everyone, not only Christians, were to observe Sunday as the holy day of obligation. Here sports, work, entertainment and shopping were prohibited. Religious adherence influenced every aspect of per diem life. Today, adherents are free to do as they please on Sundays, and whilst the expectation of attending mass continues to exist, it is minor. The reason for this change was primarily the migratory influx following the Second World War.
4. Evaluate the importance of Christianity, the major religious tradition, in the history of Australia.
An in-depth studying of Christianity in the context of Australian history will show that this major religious tradition was of great significance in the country’s history. From the time of British colonization in 1788, Christianity has played a major role in the establishment and development of Australian social, political and cultural mores, some of which are evident today. The Christian tradition was supported and encouraged by ‘official and unofficial government policy and social norms’, which in turn empowered the church and its adherents. Christianity thus influenced such things as marriage and family life, worship, sex education, institutionalized prejudice and legislation regarding business operations, the role of women in the home and in the workplace. The church also supplied the provision of health, education and welfare benefits to members of the public, a service that continues today. Christianity, as the major religious tradition in Australia, is therefore of major importance when considered in terms the history of Australia.
5. List some social & cultural differences between 1945 & Australia today.
Some social and cultural differences in Australia between 1945 and the present day include:
6. Recount some changes that migration caused in the religious life of Australia.
Migration post WWII caused some changes in the religious life of Australia. With formal and informal agreements being made between governments and interest groups, migrants and refugees made their way to Australia in the hope for a better life, bringing with them their own beliefs and customs. The influx of Afghan and Iraqi refugees, for example, brought about higher populations of Islam, whilst asylum seekers from South-East Asia caused an increase of Buddhist populations.
7. Describe & analyse the concept of denominational switching.
Denominational switching is a process whereby the adherents from one denomination within a religious tradition change, or ‘switch’, to another. These changes have been widely attributed to social mobility; as peoples’ lives change, so do their religious beliefs and practices. Different experiences challenge different people to extend themselves beyond their ‘religious comfort zone’. Others factors influencing denominational switching include:
- monetary wealth/economic polarization between rich & poor as well as the prevailing association between conservative religion & increased economic mobility
- social influence, namely the fear of terrorism & its link to extreme religious expression ‡ move to conservative switching
- Cyclical trends of liberalism and conservatism which have in turn seen a social trend away from ‘self-analysis & religious spiritualism to a religion based on a strong theocratic world view’
A trend toward increased denominational switching is evident in Australian society, with people adopting an attitude of increased cultural individualism (‘I don’t want to, therefore I don’t have to’).
8. Explain how denominational switching has affected Christianity overall & some individual denominations.
Denominational switching, particularly within the past sixty years has had a major impact on individual denominations and Christianity as a whole. Denominational switching resultant from a prevailing attitude of cultural individualism among adherents has seen a more casual observation and practice of the Protestant, Catholic and Orthodox denominations. In addition, movement from mainline Protestant denominations and switching to more evangelical and conservative churches is becoming increasingly evident.
9. Describe the rise of New Age religions & extrapolate recent trends to predict changes in the next five years.
New Age religions have been on the rise in Australia since the beginning of the 1970s following their introduction in the US. Developed in response to mainstream religions, namely Christianity, and their ‘failure to satisfactorily respond to the needs of people today’ (p.30), the New Age Movement has no official structure or holy text, rather centres on a variety of similar beliefs and is founded on spiritualist ideals.
From 1996 to 2001, the proportion of individuals who claimed adherence to New Ageism doubled from 30 500 to 45 800 (p29). The most significant increases were seen in Paganism, which saw an increase of 144 per cent, and Wiccan/Witchcraft, which rose by 373 per cent. Whilst Spiritualist increased by 14 per cent during this five-year period, the sect nonetheless accounts for the greatest number of adherents, beside Paganism, in the New Age Movement. The 2006 census saw a further escalation in the number of people claiming adherence to Paganism, with a 45.93 per cent increase. Spiritualist and Wiccan/Witchcraft however, remained constant, with the former increasing by 0.06 per cent and the latter declining by 0.06 per cent. It is therefore evident that New Ageism has, and continues to be of significance within Australian society. If current trends continue alongside the support of mass media, New Ageism namely Paganism, will continue to escalate incredibly.
10. Describe the concept of secularism & explain how it affects the expression of religion in Australia.
The concept of secularism is basically any movement or ideal that that rejects religion, or more specifically, denies religious belief and adherence. It involves an individual decision not to belong or be engaged in the faith and/or spiritual experience that religion offers. Agnosticism, atheism, humanism and rationalism are all secular views.
In Australia, increasing secularism has seen a drop in total religious adherence, both formal and informal. Commonly attributed to an increased acceptance of secularism in Australian society, this movement has affected a more relaxed, more casual expression of religion within the past few years. Church processes, one’s beliefs, alternatives, personal attitudes and technical influences are all factors that have, and continue to result in the rise of secularism as well as declining church attendance. Each of these factors also support the prevailing perception of individual wants, needs and ideals as opposed to those of the community. The perception of individual importance and value is thus heightened, whilst that of the community is relegated. When applied to Christianity, secularism is causing the downfall of some denominations and the success of others in terms of religious adherence, church attendance, and even denominational switching or the disavowal of religion altogether.
11. Define the following:
a. Ecumenism:
Dialogue between difference (Christian) faiths on an organisational level to discuss similarities and differences of organization and belief. Also refers to Ecumenical Movement which is one that aims to unite the all denominations of Christianity into one single church – the Christian church.
b. Interfaith dialogue:
‘Cooperative and positive interaction between people of different religious traditions.’ (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interfaith_dialogue)
c. Reconciliation:
A process by which conflict is ended or friendly relationships renewed between disputing groups or people; making two apparently conflicting things consistent or compatible.
12. List & describe the history & activities of some ecumenical movements within Christianity.
a. World Student Christian Federation (WSCF):
Founded in Sweden during 1895, The World Student Christian Foundation is an international student organization. The WSCF centres on the concept of ecumenism and consists of individual national Student Christian movements of Catholic, Orthodox and Protestant denominations. The movement aims to evangelise the Christian message. Taken from the Gospel according to John, the motto of the WSCF reads ‘That they may all be one’ (Jn 17:21).Active in universities across the country, the Australian Student Christian Movement (ASCM) constitutes Australia’s involvement within the WSCF.
The Federation engages in the social aspects of Christianity, namely environmental and social justice issues. The ASCM actively work towards supporting and liberating marginalised social and cultural groups, including women, homosexuals and Aboriginal and Torres Strait islander people. Together these groups strive against ‘racism and the exploitation of disposed people within the Asia-Pacific region.
b. National Council of Churches
The National Council of Churches (NCC) is an ecumenical organization that effectively unites Australian Christian churches in practical and organisational cooperation to discuss faith-based issues. It works in cooperation with the World Council of Churches as well as state governments in order to achieve its objectives of positive inter-faith dialogue and the development of progressive and encouraging relations between Christian denominations concerned with the organization.
c. NSW Ecumenical Council
The NSW Ecumenical Council consists of 16 churches from both NSW and the ACT. These churches share a common perception that ecumenism is a positive step in the journey to unity within the Christian church. Akin to the student associations, the Ecumenical Council unites its member churches in practical and organisational cooperation to discuss and express concerns and attitudes regarding faith-based issues as well as work collaboratively for the advantage of both individual churches and the wider community. In this way the Council encourages and supports interfaith dialogue between local churches of differing denominations.
13. Evaluate the importance of interfaith dialogue to Australia.
Interfaith dialogue is paramount to Australia, especially given the nation’s multicultural nature. Interfaith dialogue, that is the active communication and listening between members of different faith traditions, allows those involved to develop an informed understanding of the different religions, perspectives, attitudes, ideas and concerns held by others with whom they may not otherwise have the opportunity to relate. Carried out in the context of a safe, supportive and tolerant environment, where members feel appreciated, respected and valued, this approach is then encouraged and extended to include members of the wider community, both religious and secular. Interfaith dialogue is essential in allowing the different religious traditions to have their voice heard and in turn hear those of their fellow Australians in addressing and managing issues and concerns that affect each and every Australian citizen, either directly or indirectly, thus promoting the development of a tolerant and egalitarian multicultural society.
14. Explain how Reconciliation affects all Australians.
The concept of reconciliation, or the betterment of relationships between disputing people or groups, is one that affects all Australians. Reconciliation, when applied to the Australian context, refers to the relationships between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people and non-indigenous Australians and the improving of these bonds. Australians for Native Title and Reconciliations (ANTaR), a national network of individuals and organizations independent of all government and political groups, since is establishment in 1997, has brought to the fore the way in which Reconciliation affects all Australians. By ‘bringing together Aboriginies and non-Aboriginies [we, the Australian people can find] better ways of tackling problems and of connecting with one another.’
In order to bring about justice, recognition and healing of past wrongs, Reconciliation must take place. The first step in achieving Reconciliation was taken in March of 2008, when Labour Prime Minister Kevin Rudd delivered a national apology on behalf of the Australian Government and it’s people to the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, namely the Stolen Generations who were forcibly removed from their cultural links and kinship ties from the 1930s thorough to the 1970s. Not only do Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders contribute significantly to the social and cultural fabric of today’s day and age, but to the sacred, historical fabric of the past. Having said this, it can be seen that Reconciliation affects all Australians and out ability to forge a national identity as a multicultural society appreciative of the past and present contributions of our indigenous population. Furthermore, Reconciliation is essential in bridging the social and cultural inequities that have and continue to exist between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal Australians.
Subject specific terminology: Questions
Humanism, Atheism, Agnosticism...
Humanism
The video, ‘What is Humanism?’ assists people in finding meaning through non-religious practices by lending the viewer an explanation of the fundamental philosophy upon which humanism is based. Humanism, namely scientific humanism, is basically a philosophy that humankind can be perfected and knowledge attained through rational thought and experimentation. The philosophy repudiates anything that cannot be verified or dealt with using the scientific method, and therefore centers on ‘living life with a reason and trying to answer questions in a rational manner’. This reason, as described by the individuals within the clip, is ‘understanding human nature’ and ‘living life as well as one can…for the betterment of humanity’.
The humanistic approach of celebrating, respecting and valuing all living creatures, humankind in particular, is attributed to the inherent disposition of the human person. A practicing humanist commented that she was attracted to the philosophy because ‘it already fit [her] direction, because it comes from within’. In concentrating one’s efforts towards improving his or her relationships with those around them as well as their surrounding environment, the humanist finds an encouraging and profound support system as well as a strong sense of belonging and consequent identity. In this way the humanist is enabled to develop the values and principles, promoted by the humanistic approach as being human-based.
In coupling compassion with scientific methods, the humanist is enabled to make sense of their world, to understand ‘our context within nature’ and therefore find direction and meaning by nonreligious means.
Steelman, R. Red Bank Humanists - What Is Humanism? [Online] Accessed: 04/12/08
http://au.youtube.com/watch?v=dU65kOACsAU
Atheism
This video is basically an individual's perspective on and experience of atheism. She claims that atheism allows a sense of freedom and individual fulfillment. She describes her world-view as being 'complete'. The subject details that she has no need to look outside of this life for value and meaning, that value and meaning should not, or rather do not depend on an outside force, or God, in stead should depend on one's own experiences. According to the subject, atheism is 'deep, solid and based on fact'. The meaning and value with which she regards people and things in life, as well as life itself, stems from her day to day experiences, her connectedness with others and her surrounding environment. She comments that there is no need for 'exterior validation', rather an individual certainty of the here and now, a common theme observed amongst and agnostics alike.Krimmel, M. (2008) Atheism is not sad [Online] Accessed: 07/12/08 http://au.youtube.com/watch?v=tXMbiHhxwoE&feature=related
Voysey, S. (2008) Allister McGrath - Atheism [Online] Accessed:11/12/08 http://www.fm1032.com.au/AudioLounge.asp?cid=78&navid=4This interview is profoundly insightful! Offers reasons as to why people choose atheism, what atheism has to offer as well as reasons for its apparently imminent demise.
Agnosticism This clip defines an Agnostic as 'a person who holds the view that any ultimate reality (as God) is unknown and probably unknowable and is therefore not committed to believing in either the existence or nonexistence of God or a god.' It too provides a definition of the term 'God' and how the philosophy of agnosticism applies to religious tradition. The subject details that science, logic and mathematics are all 'valid' in the material or physical realm, a realm in which ghosts, gods and and other spiritual beings are 'invalid' or unable to be dealt with using the former three methods. He argues that because God, or rather the existence of deities, do not affect change on the physical realm, have mass or energy they do not exist or cannot be detected, which for him is the equivalent to nonexistence. By relating the belief in a deity to that of a belief in fantasy, the composer suggests that God, or spiritual beings, if they exist, may be found within 'another' universe, a universe unlike our own, a universe in which their existence will never be known. Any statement pertaining to the 'truth' is thought to be equivocal to error and is thus thought to be irrational, Agnostics therefore reserve judgement about the existence of gods and supernatural beings. Having said this, it can be seen that Agnostics such judgments are reserved in respect of possibility, the possibility in a world where very little, they believe, is certain - a 'doorway' as opposed to a 'closed door'. (Spare yourself, don't watch the video.)
Stefbot, Agnosticism - The incomprehensible halo [Online] Accessed: 08/12/08 http://au.youtube.com/watch?v=Isk6Tf5JyM4
Jewish Ethics
- According to the Jewish Sacred texts the actions of the adherent reflect their r/ship with God, this relationship stipulates that life has intrinsic value and must therefore be preserved at all cost.Paul
Subject Specific Terms
Epistles – from the Greek word meaning ‘letters’; style in which Paul wrote when addressing the Christian communities he had established. E.g. Corinth.Hellenise – to make something Greek; used to describe Paul’s action of ‘Hellenising’ Christianity in order to make it more accessible to those of his time.
Christos – from the Greek word meaning ‘anointed one’ in reference to Jesus.
Sect – a subgroup of a religious tradition, typically emphasising a particular aspect that makes it different to other groups of the same tradition. Used here to refer to Christianity as a sect of Judaism, prior to it becoming a fully-fledged religion in its own right
Evangelical – ‘from the gospels’; typically refers to a Protestant movement that believes one’s soul can be saved only by having faith in the atoning death of Jesus. Used to describe the ‘evangelical’ movement of Christianity of which Paul was a prominent figurehead
Pauling Christianity – ‘Pauline’ term used critically to suggest that Paul and his followers unduly corrupted the message of Jesus. Used to describe Christianity that has ‘shaken off’ many of its Jewish practices
Persecutor – someone who oppresses/punishes others for following a particular faith. Used to describe Paul, or rather Saul, prior to his conversion.
Missionary – a person who works to convert others to their religious faith, often in a place where the religion is not widely practiced; which is what Paul did in spreading the Good News of Jesus ‘to the ends of the earth’
Martyr – to put someone to death who will not give up their religion or views or beliefs. Christian tradition maintains that Paul was martyred during Nero’s persecution of the Christians during the latter half of the first century
Wednesday's Lesson
During today’s lesson you are to:
1. Prepare a draft plan for your Assessment Task focussing on Paul’s contribution to the development and expression of Christianity.2. Suggested Reading p 47-48 of Meeting St Paul. The references here will allow you to explore Paul’s contribution Christianity.
3. Download the powerpoints from the class Wiki to assist with essay plan.
4. It would be helpful to answer the Key Text and Questions on page 53 of Meeting St Paul Today.
5. Place your draft ideas and essay plan on your Wiki page.
End of the Lesson:
1. Ensure you have saved your plan to your wikispaces.com
2. Check the learning preparation due for Friday.
Describe Christian ethical teachings on bioethics
Ethical teachings can be defined as ‘a system of moral principles by which human actions may be judged to be right or wrong’. Christian bioethics therefore, is an application of our moral and ethical principles to human life issues such as abortion, euthanasia, and stem cell research, as well as our responses to these. In Christianity such responses are fundamentally informed by Biblical teaching, that is to say, all variants of Christianity formulate their bioethics on the basis of the Old and New Testaments. When examining Christian bioethics, the role of conscience, Eternal Law, Natural Law, Revealed Law and Church Law, must also be considered.
The Decalogue, particularly the sixth commandment - ‘Thou shall not kill’ – as an example of revealed and natural law reinforces the sanctity of human life established in Genesis - ‘in his image and likeness he created them’ – that undergirds Christian bioethics. Akin to Jesus’ Golden Rule and the Beatitudes, related in Matthew’s gospel, these too inform the Christian understanding that the human person is intrinsically holy because God is holy – ‘You are holy because I am holy’. Therefore, if we are holy, just as God is holy, we must act in a manner befitting the dignity of the human person as well as our relationship with God.
In John’s gospel (13:14-15) Jesus states ‘You are to do as I have done for you’. In this way Jesus offers Christians the example of his life, death and resurrection as a way in which adherents are to live in accordance with the moral and ethical principles demanded by their beliefs. Furthermore, in his summary of the Decalogue, Jesus states that we must ‘love the Lord your God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all your mind and with all your strength, and love your neighbour as you love yourself’. When determining an ethical response therefore, Christians will ideally ask ‘what would Jesus do?’ and ‘does this decision reflect the law of love’. If the answer to these is ‘yes’, then the decision and consequent action are considered both moral and ethical. Ideally, such conclusions would also be drawn through human reasoning.
Despite this common thread, variations in ethics can be seen throughout Christianity as variants place different emphasis on different sources of guidance. For example, Catholics emphasise the role of authoritative bodies such as the Vatican, whilst Protestants discredit such roles with a total focus on biblical teaching. Such variations will often manifest themselves in the different responses adherents develop to such issues as contraception and abortion.
Islamic bioethics
Haven't yet read through this thoroughly, but the following link provides excerpts from the Qur'an to formulate and justify the Islamic understanding that bioethics must be considered in the light of the dignity of the human person, scripture and the prophetic tradition.
http://www.iaari.hbi.ir/journal/archive/articles/v6s5ara.pdf
INTRODUCTION TO ISLAMIC BIOETHICS1
http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2008/03/a-beginners-gui/
Islamic sacred texts
Four (4) quotes from the Qur’an to support bioethical teachings:
Subject Specific Terminology
Qur'an:
- 'the recitation'; Islamic holy book (610-632): the sacred text of Islam, believed by Muslims to record the revelations of God to Muhammad.
(Encarta ® World English Dictionary © & (P) 1998-2004 Microsoft Corporation.)
Sunnah:
- part of Islamic law; one of the basic sources of Islamic law based on Muhammad’s words and deeds as recorded in the Hadith.
The Sunna complements and often explains the Koran. (Encarta)
- the way of life prescribed as normative for Muslims on the basis of the teachings and practices of Muhammad and interpretations of the Koran. [[wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn]]
Hadith:
- The sayings of Prophet Muhammad as narrated by his companions). www.badralislami.com/glossary/a-h.asp
- Collection of Islamic traditions: the collected traditions, teachings, and stories of the prophet Muhammad, accepted as a source of Islamic doctrine and law second only to the Koran (Encarta)
Ijima:
-consensus of opinion
Fiqh:
- Islamic jurisprudence; Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the Quran and Sunnah—that complements Shariah with evolving rulings/interpretations of Islamic jurists.
Fiqh deals with the observance of rituals, morals and social legislation. There are four prominent Sunni schools of fiqh (Madh'hab) and two schools for the Shi'a. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiqh
-Islamic law as developed by Muslim jurists. The term is often used synonymously with Shari'ah; the main difference being that Shari'ah bears a closer link with divine revelation, whereas fiqh mainly consists of the works of religious scholars and jurists. http://www.geocities.com/mutmainaa/law/law_glossary.html
Fatwa:
- a response by a scholar of Islamic law to a question related to Islamic law
- a religious edict
Shari'a:
- Islamic law as contained in the divine guidance of the Qur'an and Sunnah. 'Islamic law' is the nearest English translation of Shari'ah, yet the latter is not confined specifically to legal subject matter and extends to the much wider areas of moral and religious guidance http://www.geocities.com/mutmainaa/law/law_glossary.html
Halal:
- permissible under Islamic law
Haram:
- not permissible under Islamic law
Prophet:
- somebody who interprets divine will: somebody who interprets or passes on the will of a deity (Encarta)
Muhammad:
- UHAMMAD: Muhammad (sometimes Mohammed, Mahomet) (570? - 632 CE), the founder of Islam, is regarded as the "seal of the prophets", meaning the last of the line of prophets that begins with Adam and runs through the prophets of the Old and New Testaments, including Abraham, John the Baptist, and Jesus. At about age forty, Muhammad was visited by the angel Gabriel, through whom he received and recited the Qur'an.http://www.zoofence.com/define05.html
Sunni:
- "a follower of Sunnah"; a follower of mainstream Islam; Sunni or a Sunnite; an orthodox Muslim who recognizes the first four Caliphs as the rightful successors. http://www.geocities.com/mihraab786/Termi.html
Shiite:
- member of one of the two great sects of Muslims: Shiites consider Ali, Mohammed’s son-in-law and the fourth of the caliphs, as the first Imam and the rightful successor of Mohammed, and do not accept the Sunna as authoritative.http://www.worldpress.org/mideast/1897.cfm
Hajj:
- 'an imperative duty of all able Muslims'
- pilgrimage to Mecca
- the seal of consummation, the completion of surrender, and the perfection of religion'
Five Pillars:
five fundamental statements of belief that govern the everyday life of Muslim adherents. They are:
1. Shahada: faith declaration
2. Salah: prayer
3. Zakat: charity
4. Sawm: fast
5. Hajj: pilgrimage
finaleditor (2007) 'What is Hajj? Pilgrimage of Muslims'
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hwk0zl7Y9YcHajj, as a the Fifth and final Pillar of Islam is most significant to the Muslim religion. In completing the pilgrimage to various sacred sites in Mecca, one being Ka'ba, all Muslim adherents - including the Shii'te and Sunnah' variants - fulfill their obligatory duty to Allah, to submit to his will and do what it is right. The Hajj consists of numerous rites, each of which express the fundamental principles upon which Islam has developed. In respect to the individual and the community, or Umah, Hajj represents an opportunity for all adherents, irrespective of race or variant, to gather as the one people of God. The simple white attire of the pilgrim is symbolic of this. Furthermore, prayer, charity, the declaration of faith and abstinence/fasting (each of wich are Pillars in themselves), are observed in the spirit of moral and spiritual disciple, within the context of the faith community, to 'perfect the religion' and bring each adherent that much closer to Allah. For these reasons, Hajj is of upmost significance for both the individual and community as an expression of faith.